The term “Biodiversity” refers to all life forms existing on planet Earth. The existence of all living creatures, including mankind, depends on the proper and sustainable functioning of the natural environment and of the ecosystem in which they live. Many processes, and first and foremost the degradation and loss of habitats for development, as well as the intrusion of invasive species, climate change, pollution (whether chemical, light, or noise) and more, cause a decline in the distribution and presence of many species. In Israel, one of the densest countries, globally, accelerated development leads to a reduction in open spaces and deterioration in the quality of open natural lands, thus causing both direct and indirect damage to local biodiversity. Continuous monitoring and documentation of the ecological changes occurring over time is required to preserve and manage functioning natural systems. This is ecological monitoring – long-term monitoring of the state of the ecosystems and the species that comprise them, using indicators to help identify changes efficiently.

Hamaarag leads the national biodiversity monitoring program to identify significant changes in Israel’s biodiversity – thus understanding the state of the various ecosystems in Israel, and the human impact on them. Since 2012 research teams have taken part in the program, and monitored the diversity of plants and animals in different ecological units in Israel. Using the data collected, Hamaarag examines the influence of different processes and threats on the biodiversity and functioning of the local ecosystems.

How is the monitoring carried out?

The monitoring program covers nine different ecological units in Israel: Mediterranean maquis, shrubland and grassland, coastal plain sands, the Mediterranean-desert transition zone, the Negev mount, the arid south, planted coniferous forests, the loess plains in the north of the Negev Desert, and the sands of the Western Negev. For each of these units, a team of experts has defined the most crucial processes and threats. These processes are monitored by tracking a group of biological indicators, the main ones being plants, mammals, birds, arthropods and reptiles. Plants are monitored by well-skilled botanists, drones and satellites. Arthropods, reptiles and birds are monitored in field surveys by experts, and mammals are monitored by motion cameras located in selected areas. Most monitoring plots are located at different distances from human settlements and agricultural lands, allowing for a long-term survey of the impact of human disturbances on different ecological indicators, compared to remote control-group plots.

The findings of the monitoring program are published annually in an in-depth report on the state of nature in Israel, so as to provide decision-makers dealing with the country’s open spaces with a reliable, up-to-date, picture regarding the state of nature in Israel. In each report, certain aspects are discussed comprehensively and in-depth.

Key findings

Dr. Ron Chen, Hamaarag’s quantitative ecologist, explained the importance of monitoring the vegetation: “the monitoring of woody vegetation is crucial, since its character dictates the composition of the biodiversity of both animals and herbaceous plants in the habitat”.

The findings of the monitoring program indicate the various influences of human settlement and agricultural lands on the biodiversity of mammals and birds. Ron expanded: “we used trail-cameras to monitor mammals both in proximity to settlements and further from them, and saw that different species show different activity patterns. Some species prefer proximity to humans, and it seems that human activity significantly contributes to the spread and establishment of Mediterranean species in the desert (such as the golden jackal and the common fox). In contrast, other species (such as the Israeli deer and the striped hyena) are mainly observed further away from human settlements. The continuing trend of reducing natural open areas far from human settlements reduces the area preferred by such species.”

The effect of human settlement was found also when monitoring birds: “In the desert, we observed a significant difference between sites close to human settlements and those further away. In proximity to humans, we found human-accompanying species, while in more remote sites we observed other species that prefer a desert environment devoid of human influence. In contrast, in the Mediterranean region, the differences between sites closer to and further away from human settlements were found to be less significant.”

In conclusion, Ron added: “Human activities affect changes in vegetation and biodiversity. The continuation of the monitoring program in the years to come will allow us to deepen and expand our understanding of the processes undergone by ecosystems in Israel, and will serve as a significant tool to help tackle future challenges in the conservation of biodiversity in Israel”. The findings of the monitoring program are also presented in Hamaarag’s State of Nature reports.

הפוסט The national biodiversity monitoring program הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.

The monitoring program in Ashalim stream was established in 2018 to monitor the effect of pollution on the stream’s ecosystems. Fifteen research groups from seven research institutions, specializing in different subjects, are taking part in the monitoring program.

Key findings

The coordinator of the monitoring program in Hamaarag described the key findings: “The monitoring results have shown that there is wide-ranging and ongoing damage to the ecosystem of the Ashalim stream. This damage is evident in both biotic and a-biotic components of the ecosystem, and in the different trophic levels – producers, consumers and predators. The damage to the sandy area located upstream was found to be the most significant, and high concentrations of pollutants were found in the soil in that area. In addition, we found that heavy metals, originating from the pollution incident, accumulated in both plant and animal tissues.

On the other hand, the program coordinator expanded – “certain components of the stream exhibit signs of recovery, due to – among other reasons – an unusual number of rain events and strong floods that impacted the many water pools located in the rocky area of the stream”. This helped the gradual restoration of the invertebrate community that populates the water pools: three years after the pollution incident, lesser crustaceans were found back in the pools, after they were completely absent in earlier surveys. In contrast, the rain events had almost no impact on the sandy area and on the terraces on the banks of the stream, which were damaged by the pollution and still contain high levels of pollutants three years after the event. It was found that the pollution severely affected the soil crusts and bacterial populations, leading, in particular, to the disappearance of the group of bacteria which provides sources of nitrogen to plants.

One significant result indicating the severe effects of the pollution is the damage to the Ashalim stream vegetation – in the incident itself almost half of the shrubs died. During the monitoring efforts in the years following the event it was found that the seed bank in the soil, as well as the richness of plant species in the stream, were relatively low, compared to findings from the control streams, but that the Ashalim stream itself is slowly recovering.

The results of the arthropod monitoring add an important component to the understanding of the impact of the pollution on the stream – seed-eating ants almost completely disappeared from the sandy area, a fact which indicates damage to the plants’ seed bank. In the alluvial area, downstream, a large number of sap-sucking insects, known to be harmful to plants, was observed in the year following the pollution incident, but already one year later their number decreased and returned to normal, compared to the control sites. This is further evidence of the stressed condition of the plants following the incident, as well as evidence of the recovery process in the alluvial area, compared to the sandy area.

What are the plans for the future?

The monitoring program currently focuses on characterizing and understanding the processes in which pollutants accumulate in the food web, and examines whether damage to the populations’ resilience in the long-run is to be expected. Continuing the monitoring and research efforts in the Ashalim stream in the coming years will promote deeper understanding of the damage to the ecosystem, and lead to more informed decision-making regarding the stream’s restoration.

הפוסט Ashalim stream monitoring program הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.

The coordinator of the monitoring programs in Hamaarag described the program and its findings: “The current pollution event in the Evrona Nature Reserve is not its first. A pollution event in 1975, which occurred in another part of the Reserve, served as a basis for comparison and for the examination of the impact of oil pollution decades after the event. In addition, we compared the polluted areas to a near-by control site which had not suffered oil pollution. Monitoring the pollution and its ecological impacts in the Evrona Nature Reserve is unique on a global level. We have not found documentation of similar cases of the contamination of a desert eco-system with crude oil on such a scale. Our monitoring program had two goals: to characterize the pollution and study the response of the ecosystem response to the pollution. On the physical level, oil pollution caused the formation of a hydrophobic layer in the layer of top-soil, which prevents water from penetrating the soil. Five years after the event, the concentration of pollutants in the soil is still high, and it turns out that the area polluted in 1975 still has a high concentration of pollutants in the ground.”

The effect of the oil soil layer on the ecosystem was examined for the first time on the acacia trees, the keystone species for biodiversity in the nature reserve. The monitoring coordinator expanded: “We did not find damage to the mature acacia trees in the reserve, probably because the pollution did not penetrate the depths at which their root system is located, but we did find considerable damage to the germination of seeds and development of sprouts. The contaminated layer does not allow acacia sprouts to survive. In fact, it limits the capacity of natural regeneration of the population. We have also seen the impacts of pollution in the 1975 polluted site, where the recruitment capacity of young individuals to the acacia population was severely limited. There are hardly any trees in this area that sprouted from 1975 onwards, and it is possible that there has been a similar impact on the germination of other plant species.

The contamination treatments examined so far – cultivation of the the soil, and biological treatment using oil-degrading bacteria – have not yielded satisfactory results, and further possibilities for the treatment and restoration of the nature reserve are currently being considered, as well as a continued monitoring program. According to the program coordinator: “the impact of the contamination on the ecological system of the Evrona Nature Reserve may stay with us for many years to come. The main concern is that in the long term, without extensive remediation of the contaminated soil, the population of acacia trees will decline within several decades, with no natural regeneration of the population thanks to the sprouting of new trees. Damage to this population will lead to a drastic change in the ecosystem and will cause irreversible damage to its other components. At this point, our role is to find the most effective solution for the removal of the contamination, and help remediate the Evrona Nature Reserve ecosystem.”

הפוסט Evrona Reserve monitoring program הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.

The Biodiversity Index is published as part of the national “Indicators of well-being, sustainability and resilience” report, published by Israel’s Central Bureau of Statistics. These indicators take into account the size of open natural areas, their continuity, and the state of species within them.

For the purpose of calculating of the Biodiversity Index, drawing lessons from the process and promoting the issue, three key bodies have been collaborating since 2015: These are Hamaarag – Israel’s National Ecosystem Assessment Program at the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Israel’s Ministry of Environmental Protection, and Israel’s Central Bureau of Statistics. In this way, Israel has joined the leading countries in the OECD, which consistently conduct measurements of the state of their ecosystems as a key indicator to assess their populations’ well-being.

How is the index calculated?

The index compares the current situation each year and a reference state, calculated on the basis of data from the years 2013-2015, and includes a comparison of several factors:

• The size of the natural area – this measurement calculates the reduction in natural habitats – that is, by what percentage did the natural area diminish. The importance of this factor is clear: the smaller the natural area, the smaller the habitat available for various species. Diminishing the size of open natural areas leads to a higher competition for resources, reduces the number of individuals in the existing species, and may even cause the extinction of species.
• Continuity of natural areas – this is measured by the degree of fragmentation of natural open areas and by their degree of exposure to human development. Or, in other words, the extent to which human settlement and infrastructure interrupt the continuity of natural open areas and interfere with it. The continuity of natural open areas is of great importance, since such fragmentation actually implies a decrease in the habitable area. Such fragmentation may prevent mating partners or food from being found. For example, most animals are not able to cross an intercity highway to move from one area to another.
• The state of the species – this index examines changes in the number of species (plants and animals) which are in danger of extinction, the endemic species (unique to Israel), invasive/eruptive species, and human-accompanying species. Invasive species are species which did not previously live in the area, but have arrived there due to human influence, and have managed to establish communities and reproduce there, often at the expense of local species. Known invasive species are the common myna (also known as the Indian myna) and the blue-leafed wattle (Acacia saligna). Another known species is the rose-ringed parakeet, a parrot which was imported to Israel as a pet, released from captivity, and has been thriving for decades in Israeli nature. Eruptive species are species that have lived in the area previously, but human activities have resulted in an increase in their numbers. Examples include the hooded crow and wild boar, which both feed on human waste, and whose numbers are continually increasing.

What does the index say about the state of our nature?

The index is calculated on the basis of this data: If the resulting number is greater than 1, this indicates improvement, but a number less than 1 indicates a deterioration in the state of nature. Unfortunately, the last Biodiversity Index calculated by Hamaarag was 0.96, meaning that the state of nature in relation to the reference period (2013) is declining, a continuation of the deterioration measured two years earlier. This deterioration manifested itself in the removal of 145.2 km² from natural areas between 2015 and 2019, in a decrease in the continuity of natural open spaces, and in a deterioration in the state of different species.

Dr. Ron Chen, an ecologist at Hamaarag and coordinator of the Biodiversity Index, explained: “The value of the National Biodiversity Index for the year 2020 is 0.960. In comparison, the value for 2018 was 0.983. These values mean that there is a continuous decline in the state of ecosystems in Israel. An examination of the Index’s components reveals that the key factors causing this observed downward trend in the Index are related to direct changes caused by human activity: the reduction and fragmentation of natural open areas, and the increase in the penetration of human influences into such areas. We have not seen a noticeable change in the state of animals and plants in this time-span, but this is not surprising, since the populations’ response may occur later than the gradual decline in the quality and quantity of the natural open space, and may be sharper and less gradual. For as long as this trend of damage to natural open areas continues, so too will the deterioration in the state of animal and plant societies, and this will in time be reflected in a further decrease of the Index.”

הפוסט Biodiversity index הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.

הפוסט Mapping uncropped areas in agricultural fields הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.

In recent years, the global understanding that ecosystems supply essential services and benefits to human existence, known as “ecosystem services”, has grown and deepened. In accordance with this approach, the existence and wellbeing of mankind is made possible thanks to the benefits provided by ecosystems. These benefits rely on the biodiversity existing in ecosystems and on the services that said systems provide. Benefits may include the provision of materials consumed by mankind, such as water, wood and food; regulating services, that is, the creation of the environmental conditions necessary for human existence, such as climate regulation, the prevention of erosion and floods, and the control of diseases and pests; and cultural services, such as tourism and sports, education and research, and enjoyment of spiritual experiences.

In Israel, adopting the ecosystem services approach has great potential in contributing to the protection of the biodiversity and open natural spaces, especially due to the country’s relatively small size, and the massive pressures for development. To this end, and following the initiative of Israel’s Ministry of Environmental Protection, Hamaarag led a project known as “Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing – a National Assessment”, together with nature conservation bodies and many research institutes. This project aims to comprehensively analyze and evaluate the benefits of ecosystems and biodiversity both to mankind and specifically to Israel’s society. The project was led by Professor Uriel Safriel, Professor Eran Feitelson, Dr. Alon Lotan, Dr. Immanuel Cohen-Shacham and Shira Grossbard.

Shira Grossbard, the editor of reports summarizing the project’s findings, describes the ambitious working process: “In this project over 200 experts, professionals and surveyors, analyzed and evaluated the latest scientific knowledge regarding the benefits that ecosystems and biodiversity provide to the residents of Israel. The country was divided into six ecosystems, and the main services provided by each system were defined. We identified the benefits of each service, the extent of their influence and their contribution to health, finance and to society as whole, and asked which sector in Israeli society benefits most from each service. In addition, we analyzed the trends in recent decades and identified the causes of any changes, examined the response of both Israel’s society and government to changes in the provision of services, and in conclusion, presented insights and recommendations regarding the implementation of this approach in Israel.”

The project’s Overview Report presents its key findings: most ecosystem services in Israel are irreplaceable, and Israel’s rich and unique biological diversity is crucial for their provision. The state of biodiversity in Israel is deteriorating due to human activities, such as changes in land-use, and the conversion of natural open spaces into built-up areas. These factors threaten the continuation of the provision of ecosystem services to the residents of Israel now and in generations to come.

“One of the goals of the project”, explained Professor Uriel Safriel, “was to present the full meaning and cost of development, at the expense of open spaces and biodiversity. The cost/benefit ratio of a construction project is not limited to the costs of materials and development, but depends also on the cost of the loss of those services provided by the biodiversity in the lost open space. Regulating services, for example, are almost unknown to the public and decision-makers, and in this project, we emphasize their importance to our very existence. Unfortunately, regulating ecosystem services in Israel are in a declining trend – whether crop pollination, regulation of diseases and pest regulation, natural disasters and extreme events, and regulating water quality – all these services are declining due to the deterioration of the state of biodiversity.”

The report provides an overview of the project and offers insights and recommendations to implement the approach at the legislative, planning and enforcement levels. The report raises several worrying insights: while some legislation does exist in Israel is aimed at protecting ecosystems, this does not adequately address the threats to such systems. However, there is potential for the preservation of ecosystem services in Israel by using environmental planning, since most of the land is owned by the State. In summary, the report’s findings constitute an important knowledge-base and are a first-of-its-kind tool for managers and policy-makers to help embed the value of ecosystem services and the biodiversity involved in their provision in decision-making processes in the areas of planning, management and the interface with Israel’s open natural areas.

הפוסט The ‘Ecosystems and Human Well-being – a National Assessment’ Program הופיע לראשונה ב-Hamaarag.